A validated computational head–neck model was used to understand the mechanical relationships between surface padding characteristics and injury risk during impacts near the head vertex. The study demonstrated that injury risk can be decreased by maximizing the energy-dissipating ability of the pad, choosing a pad stiffness that maximizes pad deformation without bottoming out, maximizing pad thickness, and minimizing surface friction. That increasing pad thickness protected the head without increasing neck loads suggests that the increased cervical spine injury incidence previously observed in cadaveric impacts to padded surfaces relative to lubricated rigid surfaces was due to increased surface friction rather than pocketing of the head in the pad.
Issue Section:
Technical Papers
1.
Monk, M. W., and Sullivan, L. K., 1986, “Energy Absorption Material Selection Methodology for Head/A-Pillar,” Proc. 30th Stapp Car Crash Conference, Paper No. 861887.
2.
Hodgson, V. R., and Thomas, L. M., 1980, “Mechanisms of Cervical Spine Injury During Impact to the Protected Head,” Proc. 24th Stapp Car Crash Conference, pp. 17–42.
3.
Nightingale
, R. W.
, Richardson
, W. J.
, and Myers
, B. S.
, 1997
, “The Effects of Padded Surfaces on the Risk for Cervical Spine Injury
,” Spine
, 22
, pp. 2380
–2387
.4.
Myers, B. S., McElhaney, J. H., Richardson, W. J., Nightingale, R. W., and Doherty, B. J., 1991, “The Influence of End Condition on Human Cervical Spine Injury Mechanisms,” Proc. 35th Stapp Car Crash Conference, Paper No. 912915, pp. 391–399.
5.
Browne, A. L., and Wood, T. L., 1985, “Reducing Facial Lacerations in Head–Windshield Impacts With Windshield Lubricants,” Proc. 29th Stapp Car Crash Conference, Paper No. 851735, pp. 205–220.
6.
Aldman, B., Lundell, B., and Thorngren, L., 1976, “Non-Perpendicular Impacts — An Experimental Study on Crash Helmets,” Proc. 1976 IRCOBI Meeting on Biomechanics of Injury to Pedestrians, Cyclists, and Motorcyclists, pp. 322–331.
7.
Camacho
, D. L. A.
, Nightingale
, R. W.
, and Myers
, B. S.
, 1999
, “Surface Friction in Near-Vertex Head and Neck Impact Increases Risk of Injury
,” J. Biomech.
, 32
, pp. 293
–301
.8.
Pintar, F. A., Sances, A., Yoganandan, N., Reinartz, J., Maiman, D. J., Unger, G., Cusick, J. F., and Larson, S. J., 1990, “Biodynamics of the Total Human Cadaveric Cervical Spine,” Proc. 34th Stapp Car Crash Conference, Paper No. 902309, pp. 55–72.
9.
Pintar, F. A., Yoganandan, N., Voo, L., Cusick, J. F., Maiman, D. J., and Sances, A., 1995, “Dynamic Characteristics of the Human Cervical Spine,” Proc. 39th Stapp Car Crash Conference, Paper No. 952722, pp. 195–202.
10.
Nusholtz, G. S., Melvin, J. W., Huelke, D. F., Alem, N. M., and Blank, J. G., 1981, “Response of the Cervical Spine to Superior–Inferior Head Impact,” Proc. 25th Stapp Car Crash Conference, Paper No. 811005, pp. 197–237.
11.
Yoganandan
, N.
, Sances
, Jr., A.
, Maiman
, D. J.
, Myklebust
, J. B.
, Pech
, P.
, and Larson
, S. J.
, 1986
, “Experimental Spinal Injuries With Vertical Impact
,” Spine
, 11
, pp. 855
–860
.12.
Camacho, D. L. A., Nightingale, R. W., Robinette, J. J., Vanguri, S. K., Coates, D. J., and Myers, B. S., 1997, “Experimental Flexibility Measurements for the Development of a Computational Head–Neck Model Validated for Near-Vertex Head Impact,” Proc. 41st Stapp Car Crash Conference, Paper No. 973345, pp. 473–486.
13.
Camacho, D. L. A., 1998, “Dynamic Response of the Head and Cervical Spine to Near-Vertex Head-Impact: An Experimental and Computational Study,” Ph.D. thesis, Duke University, Durham, NC.
14.
Deng
, Y. C.
, and Goldsmith
, W.
, 1987
, “Response of a Human Head/Neck/Upper-Torso Replica to Dynamic Loading — II Analytical/Numerical Model
,” J. Biomech.
, 20
, pp. 487
–497
.15.
Shea
, M.
, Edwards
, W. T.
, White
, A. A.
, and Hayes
, W. C.
, 1991
, “Variations of Stiffness and Strength Along the Human Cervical Spine
,” J. Biomech.
, 24
, pp. 95
–107
.16.
Paver, J. G., 1984, “The Biomechanics of Head and Neck Injury and Protection,” Ph.D. thesis, Duke University, Durham, NC.
17.
McElhaney, J. H., Doherty, B. J., Paver, J. G., Myers, B. S., and Gray, L., 1988, “Combined Bending and Axial Loading Responses of the Human Cervical Spine,” Proc. 32nd Stapp Car Crash Conference, Paper No. 881709, pp. 21–28.
18.
McElhaney
, J. H.
, Fogle
, J. H.
, Melvin
, J. W.
, Haynes
, R.
, Roberts
, V. L.
, and Alem
, N. M.
, 1970
, “Mechanical Properties of Cranial Bone
,” J. Biomech.
, 3
, pp. 495
–511
.19.
Camacho
, D. L. A.
, Hopper
, R. H.
, Lin
, G. M.
, and Myers
, B. S.
, 1997
, “An Improved Method for Finite Element Mesh Generation of Geometrically Complex Structures With Application to the Skullbase
,” J. Biomech.
, 30
, pp. 1071
–1075
.20.
McElhaney, J. H., Roberts, V. L., and Hilyard, J. F., 1976, Handbook of Human Tolerance, Japan Automobile Research Institute, Tokyo.
21.
Wood
, J. L.
, 1971
, “Dynamic Response of Human Cranial Bone
,” J. Biomech.
, 4
, pp. 1
–12
.22.
Alem, N. M., 1974, “A Discrete Parameter Head Injury Model,” Ph.D. thesis, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI.
23.
Walker, L. B., Harris, E. H., and Pontius, U. W., 1973, “Mass Volume, Center of Mass, and Mass Moment of Inertia of Head and Neck of Human Body,” Proc. 17th Stapp Car Crash Conference, Paper No. 730985.
24.
Hallquist, J. O., 1994, “LS-DYNA3D Theoretical Manual,” Livermore Software Technology Corporation, Livermore CA.
25.
Chang, F. S., Hallquist, J. O., Lu, D. X., Shahidi, B. K., Kudelko, C. M., and Tekelley, J. P., 1994, “Finite Element Analysis of Low-Density High-Hysteresis Foam Materials and the Application in the Automotive Industry,” Society of Automotive Engineers, Paper No. 940908, pp. 699–706.
26.
Chou, C. C., Zhao, Y., Chai, L., Co, J., and Lim, G. G., 1995, “Development of Foam Models as Applications to Vehicle Interiors,” Proc. 39th Stapp Car Crash Conference, Paper No. 952733, pp. 335–348.
27.
Sherwood
, J. A.
, and Frost
, C. C.
, 1992
, “Constitutive Modeling and Simulation of Energy Absorbing Polyurethane Foam Under Impact Loading
,” Polym. Eng. Sci.
, 32
, pp. 1138
–1146
.28.
McElhaney, J. H., Snyder, R. G., States, J. D., and Gabrielson, M. A., 1979, “Biomechanical Analysis of Swimming Pool Injuries,” Proc. 23rd Stapp Car Crash Conference, Paper No. 790137, pp. 47–53.
29.
Generalli
, T. A.
, Thibault
, L. E.
, Adams
, J. H.
, Graham
, D. I.
, Thompson
, C. J.
, and Marcinin
, R. P.
, 1982
, “Diffuse Axonal Injury and Traumatic Coma in the Primate
,” Ann. Neurol.
, 12
, pp. 564
–574
.30.
Foust, D. R., Chaffin, D. B., Snyder, R. G., and Baum, J. K., 1973, “Cervical Range of Motion and Dynamic Response and Strength of Cervical Muscles,” Proc. 17th Stapp Car Crash Conference, Paper No. 730975, pp. 285–308.
31.
Schneider, L. W., Foust, D. R., Bowman, B. M., Snyder, R. G., Chaffin, D. B., Abdelnovr, T. A., and Baum, J. K., 1975, “Biomechanical Properties of the Human Neck in Lateral Flexion,” Society of Automotive Engineers, Paper No. 751156, p. 3212.
32.
McIntosh, A. S., Kallieris, D., and Mattern, R., 1995, “An Evaluation of Pedal Cycle Helmet Performance Requirements,” Society of Automotive Engineers, Paper No. 952713, pp. 111–119.
33.
Newman, J. A., 1993, “Head Protection,” in: Accidental Injury, Nahum, A. M., and Melvin, J., W., eds., Springer-Verlag, New York, pp. 292–310.
Copyright © 2001
by ASME
You do not currently have access to this content.
