... and turbulent flow regimes are investigated, using the operating conditions, the nanoparticle diameter, and the solid–liquid combination as control parameters. The fundamental result obtained is the existence of an optimal particle loading for minimum cost of operation at constant heat transfer rate. A set...

.... The fundamental result obtained is the existence of an optimal particle loading for maximum heat transfer. In particular, for any assigned combination of suspended nanoparticles and base liquid, it is found that the optimal volume fraction increases as the nanofluid average temperature increases, the nanoparticle...